At equilibrium, the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal, maintaining constant concentrations of reactants and products.

K_c is temperature-dependent but independent of initial concentrations, volume, or catalysts, which only affect the rate of reaching equilibrium.

For K_c = [NH3]^2/([N2][H2]^3), units are ((mol/L)^2)/((mol/L)(mol/L)^3) = L^2/mol^2.

Increasing pressure favors the side with fewer moles of gas (2 moles of SO3 vs. 3 moles of reactants), shifting equilibrium right.

K_c = 1 means the concentrations of products and reactants are roughly balanced at equilibrium, indicating neither is strongly favored.

A catalyst speeds up the attainment of equilibrium by lowering activation energy but does not shift its position.

Per Le Chatelier’s principle, increasing [H2] shifts equilibrium toward products to consume H2, increasing [HI].

A small K_c (0.01) indicates that the equilibrium lies toward the reactants, with higher reactant concentrations.

For exothermic reactions, increasing temperature favors the endothermic reverse reaction, shifting equilibrium left.

K_c = [products]^coefficients/[reactants]^coefficients, so K_c = [NO2]^2/([NO]^2[O2]) for this reaction.

Pressure affects equilibrium when gas moles differ. Here, 2 moles of reactants form 2 moles of products, so pressure has no effect.

A large K_c means the equilibrium lies toward the products, with higher product concentrations.

Adding Cl2 (a product) shifts equilibrium toward reactants per Le Chatelier’s principle to reduce [Cl2].

K_p = K_c (RT)^Δn, where Δn is the change in moles of gas (products – reactants), derived from the ideal gas law.

For endothermic reactions, increasing temperature favors the forward reaction, absorbing heat and shifting equilibrium right.

K_c = [B]/[A]^2 = 4. Given [A] = 2 M, [B] = 4 × (2)^2 = 4 × 4 = 16 M.

High pressure favors the side with fewer gas moles (1 mole of CH3OH vs. 3 moles of reactants), shifting equilibrium right.

For heterogeneous equilibria, pure solids (CaCO3, CaO) have constant concentrations and are omitted, so K_c = [CO2].

Adding an inert gas at constant volume does not change partial pressures or concentrations, so equilibrium is unaffected.

For an exothermic reaction, decreasing temperature favors the forward reaction, releasing heat and shifting equilibrium right.