Ionic bonds involve the complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another, forming oppositely charged ions.

Cl2 has a non-polar covalent bond because both atoms have the same electronegativity (3.0), resulting in equal sharing of electrons.

The bond angle in H2O is reduced from the ideal tetrahedral (109.5°) to 104.5° due to lone pair repulsion in its V-shaped structure.

The strong electrostatic forces between oppositely charged Na+ and Cl- ions in NaCl result in a high melting point.

In CH4, the carbon atom forms four single bonds, requiring sp3 hybridization to form a tetrahedral geometry.

NH3 exhibits hydrogen bonding due to hydrogen atoms bonded to the highly electronegative nitrogen (3.0), allowing interaction with other N atoms.

sp2 hybridization results in three hybrid orbitals arranged in a trigonal planar geometry, as in BF3.

Bond polarity depends on the electronegativity difference. F-H has the largest difference (F: 4.0, H: 2.1), making it the most polar.

Metallic bonding involves a sea of delocalized electrons surrounding a lattice of positive metal ions.

CO2 has sp hybridization at the carbon, resulting in a linear geometry (O=C=O) with 180° bond angles.

Triple bonds involve three shared electron pairs, making them stronger and shorter than single or double bonds.

CH4 is non-polar, so its intermolecular forces are weak London dispersion forces, dependent on molecular size.

Nitrogen in NH3 forms three bonds and has one lone pair, requiring sp3 hybridization for a tetrahedral electron geometry.

NH3 has sp3 hybridization with three bonding pairs and one lone pair, resulting in a trigonal pyramidal shape.

HCl has a polar covalent bond due to the electronegativity difference between H (2.1) and Cl (3.0), causing unequal sharing.

Water’s high boiling point is due to strong hydrogen bonding between molecules, requiring more energy to separate.

VSEPR (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion) theory predicts shapes by minimizing repulsion between bonding and lone pairs.

NH4Cl contains ionic bonds (between NH4+ and Cl-) and covalent bonds (within the NH4+ ion, between N and H).